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PERU
For at least 300 years before the arrival of the first Europeans (Spaniards), most of the Peru (excluding the eastern lowlands) was the heart of the Inca Empire that extended from present-day Ecuador to central Chile. The Incas conquered the Andean people and fostered among the most advanced of ancient American civilizations. The Incas themselves developed a civilization and administration that in many respects was of a high order, although different in basic concepts from the civilizations that prevailed in the "Old World". The Inca Empire ended with the conquest by the Spaniards under Francisco Pizarro in 1531-1533. Lima was founded in 1535 and became the focal point of Spanish expansion and domination of western South America. It soon became the capital of the Viceroyalty of Peru, which until the mid-eighteenth century, extended from the Caribbean to La Plata (Argentina). The establishment of the viceroyalties of New Granada (1739) in the north and La Plata (1776) in the south greatly reduced the extent and power of the colonial administration centered in Lima. Peru declared its independence in 1821, following an uprising by local European (Creole) inhabitants against the Spanish colonial rule, which came to an end only in late 1824. A long period of instability followed, during which the country was governed by a succession of generals. A short confederation with Biolivia (1836-1839) was broken by rebellion. In 1879 Peru, together with Bolivia, fought a four-year war with Chile over possssion of the nitrate-rich northern part of the Atacama desert. The defeat of the Peruvian army led to the occupation of Lima by the Chilean army and to loss of territory. The border dispute with Chile was fina;;y settled in 1929. With economic development came a power struggle between the conservative Creole upper class and the liberal elements pressing for social and economic changes. During the first half of the twentieth century, Peru had eighteen presidents (five were deposed and four resigned), many of whom assumed dictatorial powers. A boundary dispute with Colombia was settled in 1932 by the withdrawal of Peru from a large area in the Amazon plain. A boundary dispute with Ecuador was settled after a short war in favor of Peru (1942), but the dispute was revived in 1981.
SPANISH COLONIAL - VICEROYALTY OF PERU
8 Escudos on 4 Escudos planchet - 1749
Calico 570 - 13,370 g - 25 mm
The obverse of this unique cob features the Pillars of Hercules and waves with 8 for the denomination, .P. .V. (PLVS VLTRA), A for año (year) and the partial date 749. The Assayer mark is R ( for Jose Rodriquez Carasa ). The reverse has the cross with the Spanish lion (Leon) and castle (Castile) arms. This coin was erroneously struck on a 4 Escudo planchet with 8 Escudo dies. It is currently listed as unique by Calico in his book on Onzas.
There are more
Peruvian gold coins in this section if you are interested - Page
Peru 1
PHILIPPINES
Some 30,000 years ago the earliest inhabitants had arrived from the Asian mainland, perhaps over land bridges built during the ice ages. By the tenth century A.D. coastal villagers welcomed Chinese commerce and settlers, followed by Muslim traders from Borneo. In 1521, Ferdinand Magellan claimed the land for Spain, whose imperial rule lasted until the United States of America gained possession after victories in the Spanish-American War in 1898 and the Philippine-American War from 1899 to 1901. United States authority, although interrupted by the Japanese occupation during World War II, led to independence for a republic founded on July 4, 1946.
4
Pesos - 1868
KM-144
- 6,77 g
Mintage - 1.557M
This coin was minted for the Philippines which
was a Spanish colony until 1898. The
obverse has a laureated bust of Queen Isabella II (b1830-d1904) with the Spanish
legend ISABELLA II FOR THE GRACE OF GOD AND THE CONSTITUTION.
The reverse has the Spanish coat of arms with the denomination at the
sides. The top legend reads QUEEN OF THE SPAINS and the bottom is the colony's
name.
There are more Philippine gold coins in this section if you are interested - Page Philippines 1
PIEMONTESE REPUBLIC (SUBALPINE REPUBLIC)
Occupied by French troops in 1797, under the protection of which the Piemontese Republic was established (10 December 1798). Duke Charles Emmanuel IV., King of Sardinia, who had succeeded his father in 1796, was declared deposed (1798). He abdicated in favour of his son in 1802. Expelled from Savoy-Piemont, the dynasty held the island of Sardinia, protected by the British navy. Briefly lost to the Russians, the republic was dissolved (June 1799). The area was restored to the House of Savoy, who had to flee again when the area was retaken by Napoleon; the Piemontese Republic was restored, to be later rechristened Subalpine Republic (established June 1800; dissolved 1802). Capital was Torino. In 1802 the region was annexed by France.
20 Franc - L'AN 9 (1800)
KM-C005
- 6,45 g
Mintage - 2.820
The obverse features a bust of Italy facing left encircled by the French legend L' ITALIE DELIVERÉE A MARENGO (Italy delivered to Marenco). The designer's initials A.L. are below the bust. The reverse has the denomination 20 FRANCS and the French Revolutionary date L'AN 9 encircled by a wreath. The legend LIBERTÉ EGALITE * ERIDANIA * surrounds the wreath. The coin was minted in Turin.
POLAND
In the 9th and 10th cent., the Polians [dwellers in the field] gained hegemony over the other Slavic groups that occupied what is roughly present-day Poland. Under Duke Mieszko I (reigned 960-92) of the Piast dynasty began (966) the conversion of Poland to Christianity. Poland has flourished under some enlightened and energetic rulers. Casimir III the Great (1333-70) was a monarch of some renown, bestowing one of Europe's first universities on Kraków, and an extensive network of castles and fortifications on the country at large. Through the ensuing centuries of territorial expansion and contraction, and of wealth and poverty, the infrastructures bequeathed by Casimir held firm. Internal stability faltered in the 17th century. With the parliament crippled by a stipulation that any legislation could be vetoed by any one member, decades stumbled by without one law being passed and Poland was frustrated into dissent. While the nobles took things into their own hands, usurping political rights and ruling their vast estates as virtual suzerainties, foreign invaders systematically carved up Poland. Russia exerted the most influence but telling battles were also conducted with Tatars, Ukrainians, Cossacks, Ottomans and Swedes. By the late 19th century, Poland was in disarray. Four million people had succumbed to war, famine and bubonic plague, and Russia, Prussia and Austria were experimenting with various ways of splitting Polish territory. With Poland's three occupying powers at war in World War I, most fighting took place on territories inhabited by Poles, who were often conscripted into opposing occupying armies and forced to fight one another. The loss of life and livelihood was staggering. In the confusion following the war, particularly Russia's preoccupation with the communist revolution, Poland was able to consolidate its territory and people into a sovereign republic. Just before WW II when Germany and the Soviet Union invaded Poland, viciously subduing the population at large. Two Polish governments in exile were set up. One in London under whom exile Polish forces fought bravely against the Axis. The Polish government in exile in Lublin slipped into a de facto relationship with Stalin. Particularly charming was the Soviet trick of sending underequipped Polish bodies to soak up Nazi ammunition, then sending in the Red Army to clean up, grab the glory and a bit more Polish territory in the process. By 1945, Poland was ruined (again), having lost over six million of its population, half of whom were Jews. At the Yalta Conference in February 1945, Roosevelt, Churchill and Stalin decided to leave Poland under Soviet control (yeah thanks guys) and Poland became a site of repression and victimisation Stalin-style. Poles never embraced Stalinism and the communist period featured waves of strikes. As hopes for prosperity dwindled, labour organisation increased, backed by a committed intelligentsia. The triumphal visit of Pope John Paul II to his homeland in 1978 dramatically increased political ferment. The organisation and articulation of the labour movement became superior to that of the demoralised communist government and, by 1980, the government was no longer in a position to use force against its opponents. Initial demands for wage rises soon took on more general political and economic overtones. Poland's workers' delegations convened under the Solidarity trade union banner, led by Lech Walesa. Solidarity had a dramatic effect on the whole of Polish society, garnering a membership of 10 million in its first month, a million of these coming from Communist Party ranks. After more than a generation of restraint, the Poles launched themselves into a spontaneous and chaotic sort of democracy. Although the government had ceded to the workers the right to organise and the right to strike all this was proving a bit much to take so martial law was introduced in 1981, Solidarity was suspended and its leaders interned, including Walesa. The brutalities of martial law were gradually relaxed but Solidarity was forced to operate as an underground organisation until Gorbachov-instigated perestroika filtered through to Poland. Semi-free elections were held in 1989 and Solidarity succeeded in getting an overwhelming majority of its supporters elected to the upper house of parliament. Walesa became President in 1990 and was not a successful leader. Poland has been admitted to NATO thereby cementing its ties with the western nations.
20
Zloty - 1925
Y-033
- 6,45 g
Mintage - 0,027M
This coin was minted to celebrate 900 years of
Poland features a crowned bust of King Boleslaus I (b966-d1025) with the legend
BOLESLAW CHROBRY 1025-1925. He was the first to call himself king of Poland. He
was also called Boleslaus the Bold. He succeeded his father, Mieszko I, as duke
of Poland. The reverse pictures the coat of arms with the Polish legend
RZECZPOSPOLITA POLSKA (Polish Republic). The
reverse pictures the coat of arms with the Polish legend RZECZPOSPOLITA POLSKA
(Polish Republic). The denomination 20 ZLOTYCH is shown at the bottom.
There are more Polish gold coins in this section if you are interested - Page Poland 1
PORTUGAL
The part of Iberia which is now Portugal was occupied by a people known as the Lusitanos who are thought to be direct ancestors of the Portuguese people. The region was invaded and occupied by the Romans and later the Moors; it remained under the latter’s control until the 11th century, when Ferdinand, ruler of the Kingdom of Leon and Castilla (in what is now Spain) conquered much of the territory. Over the next 200 years, the remaining Moors were driven out and the boundaries of Portugal fixed; and it was during this period (in 1143) that Portugal first became recognised as an independent entity under the rule of King Afonso Henriques. The Castilians were themselves expelled in 1385 after defeat at the hands of João of Aviz (who became King João I) at the Battle of Aljubarotta. From this point, the Portuguese went on to build a colonial empire in Africa, Latin America, India and the Far East. One of the most famous figures during this period was Prince Henry the Navigator, amongst whose acquisitions were the Azores and Madeira. Portugal in 1580 came under Spanish domination. This arose from the recurring friction between the two kingdoms, particularly after the union of Aragon and Castilla in the late 15th century. In the 16th century, with the Portuguese regime weakened by a struggle for the succession to the throne and the legacy of a disastrous ‘crusade’ against the Moors, Philip II of Spain (who had a claim to the Portuguese crown) invaded. Spanish rule lasted just 60 years until 1640, when the Portuguese launched a successful uprising and seceded from Spain. However, by the time they recovered their independence, the Portuguese had lost the bulk of their empire, including most of the valuable East Indies territories which had been occupied by the Dutch. Portugal faded as a major player in the European colonial scramble thereafter. The Braganza dynasty, which took power after the defeat of the Spanish, lasted until the mid-19th century, presiding over a weak economy and a largely feudal society. Portuguese political development lagged behind that of many European states during this period and it remained comparatively untouched by the Enlightenment until the emergence in the late 18th century of the Marquis de Pombal, who was both dictatorial yet enlightened (by the standards of the time) on matters of social reform. He did much to break the power of the landed aristocracy over the country. Occasional conflicts with the Spanish and French – sometimes in alliance – threatened the country’s autonomy, but the Portuguese always managed to preserve their independence, often with the support of the British. The monarchy was finally overthrown in 1910 by republican forces, who particularly resented the strong influence of the Catholic church on the regime. Finally, a right-wing dictatorship took power in 1926. Though military in composition, the key figure in the new regime was finance minister Antonio de Oliveira Salazar. Having addressed Portugal’s chaotic financial situation, Salazar became President in 1932. Salazar was influenced by the populist fascism of Benito Mussolini in Italy and founded a party, the National Union, to prepare the way for an ‘Estado Novo’. Despite its Government’s sympathies, Portugal, like Spain, stayed neutral during World War II. Salazar remained in power until 1968 as a strong anti-communist supporter of the West. Salazar’s eventual successor, Marcello Caetano, eased the restrictions on domestic political activity, but otherwise altered little. A left wing dictatorship followed but Portugal finally got its house in order and was admitted to the EC in 1986.
2500
Reis - 1851
KM-487
- 4,48 g
Mintage - 0,058M
This coin's obverse depicts Queen Maria II (b1819-d1853). Maria died in childbirth while having her 12th child. The Latin legend MARIA-II-PORTUG:AT:ALGARE:REGINA (Maria II, Queen of Portugal and the Algarve). The date 1851 is at the bottom. The reverse has the Portuguese royal arms with the denomination 2500 REIS below.
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